Botany 2025

How does the chemiosmotic theory explain ATP synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation? What is the significance of the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane?

Describe the interaction between cytokinins and auxins in regulating plant growth and development, with specific examples of their synergistic and antagonistic effects.

What are the primary causes of soil salinity and waterlogging in Pakistan? How do these issues impact agricultural productivity? Discuss with reference to specific regions and irrigation practices. Evaluate the effectiveness of government policies and initiatives in addressing waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan.

Explain the role of molecular techniques in the diagnosis, identification, and management of plant pathogens. Provide specific examples of their application in Pakistan.

How do convergent and divergent evolutions differ? Provide examples from nature. Also, describe the processes of genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation, and their contributions to evolution.